Journal of Park & Recreation Administration

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The Department of Recreation, Park, & Tourism Sciences
Texas A&M University

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Title: A Review of Real-Estate Transfer Tax Legislation Enacted by 13 States and 3 Local Areas to Fund Parks and Conservation

Keywords: real estate transfer tax, legislation, Texas, parks and conservation

Abstract: ABSTRACT: A real-estate transfer tax (RETT) is a tax imposed on transfers of real property within a taxing authority’s jurisdiction. Since it was repealed at the federal level in the 1960s, 37 states have authorized a RETT and 13 of these have used at least part of it to create a dedicated funding source for park or conservation purposes. This paper analyzes the legislation in those states and in 3 local jurisdictions where a RETT has been enacted. The tax rate levied by these jurisdictions varied from 0.10 to 2.00% and it was paid either by the buyer or by the seller, or it was divided between them. The conceptual rationales for the tax and for who should pay it are discussed. Interviews with administrators of the 16 RETT programs yielded insights into developing coalitions in support of the legislation; stability and leverage; and suggested improvements to specific RETT enabling legislation. The revenue potential that would emerge if a RETT were implemented in Texas for parks and conservation is explored. Typically, realtors are the primary opponents of RETTs, and they identify four major objections to them: (a) they are regressive and discriminatory; (b) their narrow base violates the principle of horizontal equity; (c) they are volatile and do not provide a stable source of revenue; and (d) they reduce the ability of potential buyers to purchase a home. The legitimacy of each of these objections is analyzed and all of them are found to be unconvincing.

Keywords: military wives, military recreation, constraints, leisure constraints, feminism

Abstract: ABSTRACT: “Military wives” comprise a segment of the population who face all of the challenges of traditional family life as well as the challenges associated with military life. Despite the recognition that familial satisfaction with military life is a linchpin for soldier readiness, retention, and recruitment, we know very little about these women’s lives in general and their leisure in particular. This study seeks to understand the leisure constraints among military wives. Questionnaire responses supplied by 716 military wives living at the Fort Hood Military Housing Post in Texas were used for data analysis. Ranked mean scores showed that as a group, military wives’ recreation participation was most often constrained by a trio of time and responsibility constraints (busy with work, busy with family, lacking time). In addition, military wives reported that their recreation was “sometimes” or “often” constrained by a lack of information about recreation opportunities. MANCOVA analyses were used to pinpoint constraints that may not have impacted all military wives but that significantly impacted subgroups of military wives. With regard to military wives’ levels of education and income, our findings confirmed this expectation. Lower levels of education were linked to a greater incidence of constraints, whereas a higher level of education (particularly college completion and postgraduate work) was related to a decrease in perceived constraints. Contrary to study expectations, minority status was not related to a greater prevalence of constraints among military wives. The findings indicated that Caucasian and Hispanic women were significantly more likely than African American and Asian American women to report constraints. To help women negotiate their constraints to leisure and cope with psychological pressures on post, we recommend that leisure service providers undertake the following: (a) provide information about local recreation offerings for newcomers; (b) provide child-care services on-site and intergenerational recreation opportunities; and (c) provide outlets for adults-only recreation opportunities. In addition, we recommend that military and community leaders undertake the following: (a) recognize women’s critical role in soldier readiness and retention; and (b) include military wives in community-based recreation planning on post and in the host community.

Title: Modeling Visitor Acceptance of a Shuttle System in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park

Keywords: shuttle system, contingent valuation, dichotomous choice, traffic congestion

Abstract: ABSTRACT: Visitation to the Cades Cove area of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park has grown approximately 300% in the last 20 years and has doubled since 1990. Approximately 2 million people visited Cades Cove in 2000, with 57% of this use occurring in the peak months of June-August and October (U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 2003). The 11-mile one-way loop road through the Cove is operating in a near gridlock condition through much of this time. Covering the 11 miles through the cove can take up to 4 to 6 hours as visitors block traffic by stopping in the middle of the road to view flora and fauna and take pictures. The impact of this high level of visitation on the quality of visitor experience, park resources, and facility capacity is of significant concern to park officials. Other national parks faced with similar issues have opted for greater access restrictions in favor of quality improvements resulting from less traffic congestion. Acadia National Park, Grand Canyon National Park, Yellowstone National Park, and Zion National Park have all instituted various shuttle systems to alleviate traffic congestion common during certain parts of the year. However, based on public perception of how national parks are visited, the establishment of such shuttle systems could potentially result in greater impact on visitor experience than that resulting from the increase in traffic congestion. Although public sentiment to reduce traffic congestion in Cades Cove has been great, transportation management has been a key point of contention, especially the proposed mandatory shuttle alternative. Some have argued that the cost of the proposed shuttle system is too great and that access to the area by private vehicles should not be limited. Others counter that the value they receive from their visit is being compromised due to increased traffic congestion. This study attempts to model the acceptance of a proposed shuttle system by Tennessee residents to determine how many/who supports a mandatory shuttle system in Cades Cove and the value residents place on reduced traffic congestion by way of a shuttle system. A random digit dial telephone survey was conducted to garner opinions on the use of a mandatory shuttle system to alleviate traffic congestion in Cades Cove. In addition, a dichotomous choice contingent valuation question was also posed to survey respondents to determine the value of reduced traffic congestion in Cades Cove. Results indicate that support for a mandatory shuttle system may be higher than first thought and that the value of reduced traffic congestion is significant.

Keywords: competencies, Delphi technique, entry-level employees, public parks and recreation, management, employee effectiveness

Abstract: ABSTRACT: Competencies are the skills, knowledge, and personal characteristics needed for successful performance in a job. There are several means of implementing competencies into an organization such as (a) identifying training and development needs for employees; (b) infusing hiring criteria including job descriptions, interview questions, and screening benchmarks; (c) establishing employee appraisal standards; and (d) aiding in career self-management. Competencies can also play a greater role if the agency becomes competency driven. Becoming competency driven means competency implementation at all levels of the organization including the board, valuing training and development by providing necessary resources and by viewing competencies as the cornerstone of human resources management and organizational goals, objectives, and strategic planning. Competencies have been prominent in the market (commercial) and nonprofit sectors for some time, but research on public-sector competencies, and in parks and recreation in particular, is limited. Studies in parks and recreation have focused on chief executive officers in public agencies, commercial and resort recreation entry-level employees, public park and recreation board members, entry-level public employees, and recreational sports professionals. Although there is little consensus on a single competency model, there are several similarities that span the profession. The purpose of this study was to determine the competencies needed by entry-level employees in public parks and recreation agencies. To do this, a Delphi technique was used to collect data from entry-level professionals who had less than 5 years of experience in the field. Sixteen jurors participated in three rounds of the Delphi process, which resulted in the Entry-Level Competency Framework (ELCF). The ELCF had three levels of specificity, with the broadest level being the five general competency categories, under which were 15 primary competency areas and 53 specific competencies. The most important specific competencies included (a) the ability to communicate clearly with customers, (b) the ability to listen to staff and customers, (c) the ability to deal with the public, (d) the ability to communicate clearly with staff, (e) knowing how to act professionally, and (f) the ability to manage multiple tasks. Although further research is needed to test and refine the ELCF, this is a starting point for what skills, knowledge, abilities, and characteristics professionals need to be successful in entry-level positions in public parks and recreation agencies.

Title: Visitor Experiences in National Park Service Cultural Sited in Arizona: Implications for Interpretive Planning and Management

Keywords: environmental interpretation, cultural interpretation, interpretive planning, visitor experience, cultural sites, National Park Service, Arizona

Abstract: ABSTRACT: The interpretation of natural and cultural resources is an important component of comprehensive planning and management for visitor experiences and resource conservation in cultural sites. Despite widespread recognition that knowledge of the motives, experiences, and preferences of current park visitors is necessary for effective interpretive planning, too often this type of information is lacking. In this paper, we present a study of visitor experiences in three National Park Service cultural sites in Arizona. We conducted our study in conjunction with the General Management Planning (GMP) Process for Montezuma Castle National Monument, Montezuma Well, and Tuzigoot National Monument in Arizona. We collected data on visitor motives, experiences, and preferences for interpretive themes, programs, and services through on-site (N = 1303) and mailback (N = 671) questionnaires. Our findings indicate that cultural and historical learning, nature contemplation, and escape and socializing were important motives for visiting cultural sites. Visitors felt impressed by the engineering accomplishments of the Sinagua culture and the ability of the Sinagua Indians to thrive in the arid environment, and felt a sense of pride in the preservation of the archaeological resources. Visitors also reported beneficial learning experiences as they gained knowledge about human history in the area. Our analysis indicates visitor interest in two domains of interpretive themes, one grouping of cultural and historical stories, and another grouping related to natural diversity and ecology. We identified differences between visitors to the three sites, with Montezuma Well visitors emerging as a somewhat distinct group, differentiated by their orientation toward and interest in the natural environment. The findings from this study were incorporated into the GMP and interpretive planning process to inform and refine programs and services. Specifically, our study was used to develop customized alternatives for themes, programs, and services for each site. Questions remain about choosing the structure, tone, and plurality of the narratives to be presented at cultural sites and which voices are presented, and thus privileged.

Title: Patron or Philanthropists: Giving to a Performance-Based Leisure Provider

Keywords: Philanthropy, patron, cultural organization, involvement, incentives, opportunity, social norms, empathy.

Abstract: ABSTRACT: Public and not-for-profit providers have long relied on the good will of volunteers and donors to help deliver leisure services. Although considerable research has been undertaken to discover why individuals are willing to provide such time, energy, and resources, the dynamics behind charitable giving are still unclear. This study explored donor behavior toward a not-for-profit organization, specifically a community symphony. Donors to the symphony were surveyed to discover the history of their philanthropic involvement with the organization and the motives behind their behavior. Two models of giving were compared to determine what best explained their philanthropic behavior toward the symphony. The first model was comprised of five factors (involvement, incentive package, perceived opportunity to contribute, social norms, and empathy) while the second was comprised of the same elements but the factor “opportunity” served as a moderating variable. Structural equation modeling (SEM) suggested that the moderating variable, opportunity assessment, did not influence charitable giving among these symphony donors as much as was anticipated. Charitable giving was explained less by opportunity-based variables (donor’s experience, financial resources, or a direct request for a charitable donation) than by the material, solidary, purposive incentives donors might enjoy as a result of making a donation. Of perhaps greatest importance to the leisure manager is the finding that these respondents were positively influenced by incentives. Specifically, respondents reported positive reactions to material (tangible rewards with an associated monetary value), solidary (intangible rewards including a sense of group membership, socializing, status, and the maintenance of social distinctions), and purposive (a feeling that one is contributing to a cause and/or helping to achieve a goal) incentives. These patterns differed somewhat from those reported in studies of philanthropic behavior toward non-performance-based organizations. Whereas those who give to nonperformance groups (ranging from poverty organizations to agencies focusing on foreign aid) may expect nothing tangible in return for their donations, those who gave to this symphony seemed concerned with maintaining a performance-based service that they themselves could enjoy. In this way they might be described as patrons as much as philanthropists. There is a key conceptual and practical difference between a patron and a philanthropist, and fundraisers must make the distinction between the two. Whereas philanthropists are thought to be most concerned with helping others, patrons are concerned with improving services they too can enjoy. This suggests that particular types of fund-raising approaches are appropriate for patrons. For instance, in this study, patrons were more motivated by the high quality of the symphony’s performance than by pursuing the organization’s goals. For these patrons, traditional appeals of “with your assistance we can improve the life of others” may be less successful than “with your help we can improve the quality of the performance.” Consequently, we recommend that leisure managers who oversee performance-based programs (symphony orchestras, sports teams, concert facilities, performing arts groups) develop fund-raising programs that offer material, solidary, and purposive reward structures.

Title: Visitor Preferences in Kruger National Park, South Africa: The Value of a Mixed-Method Approach

Keywords: Park visitor preferences, conjoint analysis, mixed-method, park management.

Abstract: ABSTRACT: South African protected area managers are increasingly being forced to ask strategic questions regarding the economic sustainability of the reserves they administer. To do this, managers need to know more about what visitors expect from their visits to protected areas and, for the strategy to succeed, visitors need to understand the objectives of environmental managers. In this research a mixed-method approach, using conjoint analysis and visitor comments, provides empirical data on the underlying determinants of visitor preferences in Kruger National Park. This data will assist park authorities in making betterinformed planning decisions. The conjoint analysis results showed that accommodation type and cost were the most important variables to visitors, when making decisions on visiting Kruger National Park. Accommodation cost alone was seen as more important than the combined importance of animal viewing, activities, and facilities. This finding was more prevalent for international visitors than South Africans. The qualitative visitor comments indicated that service in terms of staffing, maintenance, and information flow was poor. The value of using a mixed-method approach is that is provides park managers with a more complete picture of visitor preferences, rather than relying on numbers or comments alone. Park management can now implement appropriate strategies to meet visitor preferences, in terms of concentrating its limited resources on improving the standard of service and reviewing accommodation type and cost.

Keywords: Ropes course, means–end analysis, Challenge by Choice, Inviting Optimum Participation.

Abstract: ABSTRACT: Ropes course programs provide numerous benefits but researchers have rarely articulated the importance of key program attributes or provided information about effective program design. Although design and delivery are among the factors considered most critical to program effectiveness, few studies of ropes courses have compared different program approaches. The purpose of this study was to identify the program attributes, and proximal and distal outcomes reported by participants under Challenge by Choice (CbC) and Inviting Optimum Participation (I-OPt) approaches to ropes course programs. The aim was to identify program design and delivery features that led to particular outcomes and provide information about how ropes course programs achieve their goals. The study involved 209 adolescents (ages 10-15) who took part in full-day ropes course programs. At the end of their program, participants completed a means–end analysis survey asking them to identify linkages among program attributes, proximal outcomes, and distal outcomes. Participants’ responses were coded, entered into the LadderMap software program, and organized into Hierarchical Value Maps (HVMs) —treelike network diagrams that graphically summarize the results. Overall, I-OPt program participants, identified different concepts and linkages than CbC program participants and these differences could be connected to variations in program design and delivery. I-OPt participants were more likely to mention attributes relating to low activities (e.g., “low ropes,” “trust exercises,” and “communication activities”). I-OPt participants also reported the proximal outcome “group efficacy” as significant, and were less likely to mention the proximal outcome “anxiety.” CbC participants were less likely to mention attributes related to low activities, rarely mentioned the proximal outcome “group efficacy,” and were more likely to identify the proximal outcome “anxiety” and the distal outcome “excitement.” This study found that different program design and delivery attributes resulted in different participant reported proximal and distal outcomes. Research that identifies the mechanisms that link program attributes to the outcomes will enable practitioners to create and conduct effective programs.

Abstract: ABSTRACT: The ability to place dollar estimates on the values and benefits provided by parks is becoming increasingly vital to public park providers as competition for local, state, and national resources continues to intensify. One way of calculating at least a portion of this value is the hedonic pricing method, a technique that enables the estimation of the impact of one or more parks on the prices of surrounding properties. In this study, the hedonic pricing method is applied to four large parks in Bastrop County, near Austin, Texas. The study of the property price impacts of regional and rural, rather than traditional urban, parks has been especially limited in the literature, yet it is these spaces that are often most at threat from continued suburbanization and other forms of urban sprawl. Analysis of the four parks—both individually and as a group— revealed that these large, public open spaces had no statistically significant impact on property prices in the rural county in which they are located. Potential explanations for this lack of significance include the relatively large amount of undeveloped open space (whether publicly or privately owned) in the area, as well as the rather large size of lots compared to those in the typical American city. Combined, these factors suggest that the premium associated with living in close proximity to a public open space in a predominantly rural area might be limited by the large supply of this commodity. As suburban development continues to spread outward from Austin, however, and the quantity of truly rural land continues to be diminished, it seems likely that the willingness of Bastrop County residents to pay a property price premium for a home proximate to one of the four parks analyzed may increase. Longitudinal analysis of the magnitude and composition of property prices over an extended period would enable closer examination of this hypothesis. For land managers, whether working in urban or rural settings, these results suggest the need to carefully monitor changes in the amount and distribution of public open space available to their constituents. The association of public open space with an increase in surrounding property prices also provides a useful argument in favor of the designation or continued protection of such spaces, most notably as a result of the increase in property tax revenues that they generate for the local taxing entities.

Title: A Strategic Plan at the Core of Public Recreation Financial Management: A Case Study of Gwinnett County, Georgia

Abstract: ABSTRACT: Many public sector park and recreation departments are experiencing financial difficulties as states, counties, and municipalities face severe revenue shortages as a direct result from a struggling economy. This trend may result in decreased operating and capital budgets, decreased or eliminated grant monies, and/or frozen vacant staff positions. This crisis is not entirely unfamiliar for many public recreation agencies who over the years have grown accustomed to responding to high expectations from the public for quality facilities and services within significant budget constraints. Unfortunately, many agencies may have overextended themselves in the 1990’s by acquiring and developing recreation facilities such as parklands, fitness centers, and aquatics complexes without anticipating potential negative financial conditions. This struggle with operating costs may threaten the agencies’ ability to sustain these facilities, as well as the programs that have been implemented and whose delivery is dependent upon the utilization of such facilities. This dilemma may be the result of poor capital planning, inaccurate operating and/or maintenance planning. As a result, some multi-million dollar recreation facilities are poorly maintained, under-utilized, and in extreme cases, abandoned. Fortunately, there are public recreation agencies who have managed to maintain financial health while continuing to improve and expand facilities and services. This financial health is accomplished by piecing together an intricate puzzle consisting of various financial management practices, while maintaining public support through the adoption and continuously updating of a recreation and park comprehensive strategic plan. To further complicate the situation, some communities’ efforts to generate revenues through property tax increases, establishment of special taxes, and increased fees and charges have been met with stiff resistance from the public. Agency efforts to reduce operating costs through the reduction of operating hours, less frequent maintenance scheduling, and the purchasing of lower quality supplies and equipment are also publicly frowned upon. Fortunately, there are public recreation agencies who have managed to maintain financial health while continuing to improve and expand facilities and services. This financial health is accomplished by piecing together an intricate puzzle consisting of various financial manage- ment practices while maintaining public support through the adoption and continuously updating of a recreation and park strategic plan. The purpose of this paper is to examine the finance system and structure of a county park and recreation department, Gwinnett County, Georgia, and to examine potential explanations for its financial health and stability by identifying unique management practices and philosophies, that when combined, contribute significantly to positive agency outcomes. Gwinnett County was chosen for examination because of its dedication to utilizing sophisticated and diverse methods of financing its recreation and park facilities and programs. A history of Gwinnett County recreation finance will be presented along with revenue sources, budget structure, and existing partnerships, while emphasizing the relationship between finance and a current recreation and park comprehensive strategic plan.

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